Bera and Robinson (2004) Exploring the boundary conditions of the delay
hypothesis with adjunct displays. Journal of Educational Psychology. Vol. 96, No. 2, 381–388.
Problem/Purpose
This article was selected due to its dual merit within the graphic organizer domain. First, it highlights the enduring debate surrounding the use of graphic organizers (GOs) and outlines within the instructional domain. Second, Bera and Robinson makes a significant contribution to the current knowledge base by not aiming to discount one or the other presentation format, but rather by attempting to identify individual context specific strengths of both formats by using the delay hypothesis as their theoretical anchor.
The present study was conducted in order to explain the contradictory results of two previous seminal research studies, by exploring the boundary conditions of the delay hypothesis with adjunct displays. That is, the authors wanted to determine what types of adjunct displays would result in optimal retention when different lengths of text and numbers of displays are used. To explore the possibility that certain types of adjunct displays lead to more distinctive encoding, they tested students who viewed outlines or GOs either immediately following acquisition or after a short delay.
Methods
Bera and Robinson performed two experiments. In the first experiment they wanted to replicate the findings of Robinson and Schraw (1994) but in a more realistic setting. Bera and Robinson made a total of two modifications; first, they used a modified longer text (1,000 vs. 200 words) in order to create more realistic classroom reading material; second, they reduced the testing delay (5 versus 25 minutes) to determine whether differences in retention could be observed when the interval between study and testing was similar to those experienced in traditional classrooms . In the second experiment, Bera and Robinson wanted to replicate the findings of Robinson and Kiewra (1995) using the original 6500 words text with multiple displays but with a reduced delay (5 minutes versus two days).
In the first experiment, the participants were 124 undergraduates all enrolled in educational psychology courses at the University of Texas at Austin. The design was an A2 (display: text plus outline vs. text plus GO) 2 (testing: immediate vs. 5-min delay) factorial. Students were randomly assigned to one of the four between-subjects conditions and were presented with a 956-word text, which was adapted from an undergraduate developmental psychology text focusing on different explanations of human development, then the students received two different displays , an outline and a GO. Assessment consisted of ten multiple-choice questions which were constructed to measure the knowledge of hierarchical and coordinate concept relations( See Appendix A,B).
In the second experiment both the 72 participants and the design were identical to those used in Experiment 1. The text of 6,500 words was taken from two widely used undergraduate introductory psychology textbooks. In total, seven outlines and seven GOs were constructed on two sets of displays, both showing equivalent information. The authors constructed two tests; the first, a relation-test contained 10 four-option, multiple-choice items that required knowledge of hierarchical and coordinate concept relations that were presented in both the text and the displays. The second, an application-test, contained 10 matching items that required the identification of disorders by giving novel examples of symptoms and behavior.
Results
In experiment 1, all of the statistical tests were conducted using an alpha of .05 and an A2 (display) X 2 (testing occasion) factorial analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted on the test scores. Here Bera and Robinson found that the main effect of display was not statistically significant and thus could not be ruled different from zero, F(1, 120)=1.00, MSE =2.87; meanwhile the main effect of testing occasion F(1, 120)=5.06, indicated that students scored higher when tested immediately than when tested after 5 min. This testing occasion main effect was qualified by the Display X Testing interaction, F(1, 120)=7.29. Tests of the simple effect of testing occasion within both of the display conditions indicated that the outline groups’ performance did not change from immediate to delayed testing, whereas the GO groups’ performance decreased from immediate to delayed testing.
In experiment 2, an A2 (testing occasion) X 2 (display) X 2 (test) repeated measures ANOVA was conducted using the relations and application scores as repeated measures. Here Bera and Robinson found that only two of the seven main and interaction effects were significant. The F values for the other five effects (all with 1 and 68 degrees of freedom), including the main effects of testing (1.25), test (1.32), and the interaction effects of Display X Test, (1.39), Testing Occasion X Test, (1.08), and Display X Testing Occasion X Test (0.01), were not statistically significant and could not be ruled different from zero. In addition the main effect of display, F(1, 68)=17.47, MSE=3.41, indicated that students who viewed GOs (M=12.00) scored higher than those who viewed outlines (M =9.41). This display main effect was compromised, however, by a Display X Testing Occasion interaction, F(1, 68) =4.95. And finally, tests of the simple effect of testing occasion within each of the display conditions revealed that for the outline groups performance did not change from immediate to delayed testing, but for the GO group, delayed testing was superior to immediate testing.
Discussion
Bera and Robinson state that the results of both experiments are consistent with the findings of Robinson and Schraw (1994) and Robinson and Kiewra (1995) but indicate that because the length of the texts and number of adjunct displays differed in both the previous two experiments and in the present two experiments, the inconsistency in results may be due to these differences. They describe the possibility that the length of the learning materials may explain these inconsistencies and posit that the distinctiveness of encoding hypothesis may explain why outlines are optimal with short text and a single display, whereas GOs are optimal when text is longer and multiple displays are used.
In other words, when the study process becomes too difficult with a long text and multiple outlines because GOs allow readers to grasp these relations more quickly and easily, the difficulty is lessened as the GOs are now permitting readers to encode the information more distinctively. This results in a more durable encoding compared with what is remembered from the more difficult-to-comprehend outlines.
Finally, the authors suggested future research that would investigate other populations in order to test whether differences between outlines and GOs in terms of the delay hypothesis do occur with elementary or high school students.
Critique
This paper was a very well researched, organized and written piece where the authors used clear and easy to understand language. One critique that was not acknowledged by Bera and Robinson was the less than optimal number of participants for factorial data analysis. All other shortcomings/ limitations were either addressed by the authors or were likely to be left out due to common editorial constraints.
Theoretical and practical implications
One theoretical implication of the Bera and Robinson study is that the results are likely to produce or at least demand that future GO research further explore relations and interdependence between encoding efficiency and encoding distinctiveness, the two factors that can produce the efficient and effective comprehension of main ideas.
Practical implication are likely to include the incorporation of Bera and Robinson efforts which call on educators to capitalize on students’ active involvement in the learning process into everyday in-class instruction and may lead to more content-appropriate handouts and displays in schools in all levels.
Monday, April 27, 2009
Wednesday, April 22, 2009
Bahr and Dasereau (2005)
Bahr, S & Dasereau, D. (2005). Bilingual knowledge maps (BiK Maps) as a presentation format: delayed recall and training effects. Journal of experimental Education, 73(2), 101-118.
Problem/Purpose
This article was selected because it represents the latest study in an almost decade long bilingual knowledge map research by the same authors. The focus of research within the bilingual language map domain is two-fold. The first is to develop new strategies that help learners of foreign language form the so-called lexical association between native and foreign language words. The second is to make semantic foreign language concepts more accessible to novice learners with highly limited vocabulary and almost nonexistent knowledge of grammar.
Previous research on monolingual as well as BiK maps suggest that BiK maps are likely to create a very positive learning context by allowing for additional tolerance for the lack of basic foreign language vocabulary and grammar and by adding both multidimensional pictorial and visio-spatial information.
The purpose of this study was to investigate two factors related to BiK map research, the presentation format, meaning the use of either BIK maps or standard word pair list, and training on how to learn using BIK maps or word-pair lists. Within these two factors, based on previous studies by the authors, the following three objectives were explored: (1) to test the prediction that when learners’ recall s is tested following a two day delay without prior immediate recall, BiK map learners will show greater recall than word-list learners (2) to asses recall strategies and the use of cues using processing inventory of vocabulary recall (PI-VOR), and (3) to asses the training effects on both BiK map and word-list trainees performance using both PI-VOR and processing inventory of behavioral intentions for textbook study (PI-BIT).
Methods
Bahr and Dansereau recruited 82 undergraduates from several psychology classes from an unknown university to participate in this study in exchange for academic credit. The participants were treated according to guidelines of the American Psychological Association and were randomly assigned to one of the four groups. The study consisted of three sessions ranging from 35 minutes to 2 hours and was conducted within a seven day period on Monday, Wednesday and Friday. In session 1 participants were randomly assigned to conditions where their previous German language knowledge, their motivations were assessed, then received either BiK map or traditional word-list training.
In session 2, both groups warmed up by using Hindi and English word-pairs and then were trained with 16 word sets of German English word-pairs with an average of 6.65 letters per foreign word reflecting tourist vocabulary. In session 3, the authors collected memory measures on both free and cued recall, conducted two additional personal inventory post-tests and ended the session with a debriefing of the participants.
Results
Bahr and Dansereau conducted four 2 X 2 multiple analyses of covariance (MANCOVA) primary analyses on four sets of dependent measures. The first set consisted of the memory measures, which included the free recall scores
FR-wp and FR-add) and cued recall scores. The second, third, and fourth sets consisted of the personal inventory (PI) factors retained from the PI-VOR, PI-BIV, and PI-BIT, respectively.
In the memory measure (Training X Presentation) format MANCOVA on the memory measures revealed a significant effect for study presentation format, F(3, 75) = 5.16, p < .002. The authors found the univariate effects on all memory measures: cued recall, F(1, 77) = 4.78, p < .031; FR-wp, F(1, 77) = 6.61, p < .012; and FR-add, F(1, 77) = 13.57, p < .001.
The adjusted means of participants who studied BiK maps were higher than those of word-list students: cued recall, 9.03 vs. 6.47, respectively; FRwp, 3.47 vs. 1.87, respectively; FR-add, 5.55 vs. 2.90, respectively ( see Table 5 below). The standardized mean differences were dCuedRecall = .497, dFR-wp = .565, and dFR-add = .826. Here the authors found that no other effects, including set effects, were significant.
In the PI-VOR. (Training X Presentation) format MANCOVA on the two PIVOR measures revealed a significant effect for presentation format, F(2, 76 ) = 7.43, p < .001, which was reflected at the univariate level as a main effect for
the Breadth Processing factor, F(1, 77) = 14.40, p < .001. Here the authors discovered that the adjusted mean score was greater for BiK-map students than for the word- list students (4.51 vs. 3.49, respectively; d = .847).
MANCOVA analysis on the two PI-BIV measures revealed a main effect for training approaching significance, F(2, 76 ) = 3.08, p < .051. At the univariate level, this effect was apparent in the Surface Processing factor, F(1, 77) = 5.20,
p < .025. Here the authors found word-list trainees indicated greater intentions than BiK map trainees to engage in this mode of processing (5.63 vs. 5.08, respectively; d = .495).
MANCOVA analysis on the PI-BIT measures revealed no significant differences. However, given the exploratory nature of the study, a univariate finding for training is reported with the Theme (Breadth) Processing factor, F(3, 75) = 4.33,
p < .040. Here the authors found that BiK map trainees indicated greater intent than word-list trainees (5.57 vs. 5.13, respectively; d = .453).
Discussion
Bahr and Dansereau state that the general results of the study are comparable with others obtained by previous foreign language acquisition researchers. This means that large standard deviations and relatively low recall scores and correlation coefficients ( in this study Cronbach’s alpha is ranging from .613 to .969) characterize it. In this respect the authors concluded that their experimental data provided support for the argument that BIK map-based learning does have significant advantage over word-list learning, in particular within short terms. However, Bahr and Dansereau also acknowledged that students’ performance in the present study was significantly lower (ranging from 10.8% to 28.8% in the BiK group and 5.8% to 20.2% in the list group) than those of students from earlier studies by the same authors in 2001.
The authors state that the difference in the students’ performance in the present study is likely due to the fact that delayed recall in previous experiments was preceded by immediate recall, which apparently caused a rehearsal effect. Although their objective in the current study was to eliminate the possibility of differential rehearsal effects, it seems that, without rehearsal, a consequent suppression of memory in general is unavoidable when testing for BiK-map effects.
The authors also discussed the possibilities of taking BiK map out of the academic realm in order test the durability of findings in realistic settings and expressed hope That future investigation into foreign language learning connectivity and multilingual memory will lead to the development of more sophisticated learning materials.
Critique
Bahr and Dansereau’s research paper, although relatively well written, is presented in a nontraditional format that can be hard to follow as both the result and discussion sections are found at the beginning of the paper. The article could have been improved by providing additional information about the location of the study and by limiting references to the authors themselves as their work has been replicated by others on numerous occasions. Other areas of weakness include the very low Cronbach’s alpha values in the processing inventory section on page 107-108 and the very low number of participants (well below the usual 300+ that is recommend for factor analysis). In spite of these critiques and in light of the experimental nature of this investigation I conclude that the Bahr and Dansereau article is both clear written and its aim is well directed.
Theoretical and practical implications
One of several theoretical implications of this study is that it highlighted the need for additional investigation to better understand the connections between of BiK maps and the foreign and the native language lexica. Although there is previous research (see page 102) that seems to support the hypothesis that a strong semantic or conceptual association exists between foreign language words and their meaning, future research should not only confirm these hypothesis’ but should test new presentation formats that would facilitate these connections in novice learners.
Practical implications of this study include using both BiK and monolingual knowledge maps in all kinds of academic settings in order to promote a shift toward a more beneficial top-down processing strategy among the learners. The use of both bi and monolingual knowledge maps in various settings also raises the possibilities that the textbook publishers would include BiK supplements in their new editions of foreign language textbooks and that BiK map creation as a subject would be added to teachers of foreign language degree course offerings.
Problem/Purpose
This article was selected because it represents the latest study in an almost decade long bilingual knowledge map research by the same authors. The focus of research within the bilingual language map domain is two-fold. The first is to develop new strategies that help learners of foreign language form the so-called lexical association between native and foreign language words. The second is to make semantic foreign language concepts more accessible to novice learners with highly limited vocabulary and almost nonexistent knowledge of grammar.
Previous research on monolingual as well as BiK maps suggest that BiK maps are likely to create a very positive learning context by allowing for additional tolerance for the lack of basic foreign language vocabulary and grammar and by adding both multidimensional pictorial and visio-spatial information.
The purpose of this study was to investigate two factors related to BiK map research, the presentation format, meaning the use of either BIK maps or standard word pair list, and training on how to learn using BIK maps or word-pair lists. Within these two factors, based on previous studies by the authors, the following three objectives were explored: (1) to test the prediction that when learners’ recall s is tested following a two day delay without prior immediate recall, BiK map learners will show greater recall than word-list learners (2) to asses recall strategies and the use of cues using processing inventory of vocabulary recall (PI-VOR), and (3) to asses the training effects on both BiK map and word-list trainees performance using both PI-VOR and processing inventory of behavioral intentions for textbook study (PI-BIT).
Methods
Bahr and Dansereau recruited 82 undergraduates from several psychology classes from an unknown university to participate in this study in exchange for academic credit. The participants were treated according to guidelines of the American Psychological Association and were randomly assigned to one of the four groups. The study consisted of three sessions ranging from 35 minutes to 2 hours and was conducted within a seven day period on Monday, Wednesday and Friday. In session 1 participants were randomly assigned to conditions where their previous German language knowledge, their motivations were assessed, then received either BiK map or traditional word-list training.
In session 2, both groups warmed up by using Hindi and English word-pairs and then were trained with 16 word sets of German English word-pairs with an average of 6.65 letters per foreign word reflecting tourist vocabulary. In session 3, the authors collected memory measures on both free and cued recall, conducted two additional personal inventory post-tests and ended the session with a debriefing of the participants.
Results
Bahr and Dansereau conducted four 2 X 2 multiple analyses of covariance (MANCOVA) primary analyses on four sets of dependent measures. The first set consisted of the memory measures, which included the free recall scores
FR-wp and FR-add) and cued recall scores. The second, third, and fourth sets consisted of the personal inventory (PI) factors retained from the PI-VOR, PI-BIV, and PI-BIT, respectively.
In the memory measure (Training X Presentation) format MANCOVA on the memory measures revealed a significant effect for study presentation format, F(3, 75) = 5.16, p < .002. The authors found the univariate effects on all memory measures: cued recall, F(1, 77) = 4.78, p < .031; FR-wp, F(1, 77) = 6.61, p < .012; and FR-add, F(1, 77) = 13.57, p < .001.
The adjusted means of participants who studied BiK maps were higher than those of word-list students: cued recall, 9.03 vs. 6.47, respectively; FRwp, 3.47 vs. 1.87, respectively; FR-add, 5.55 vs. 2.90, respectively ( see Table 5 below). The standardized mean differences were dCuedRecall = .497, dFR-wp = .565, and dFR-add = .826. Here the authors found that no other effects, including set effects, were significant.
In the PI-VOR. (Training X Presentation) format MANCOVA on the two PIVOR measures revealed a significant effect for presentation format, F(2, 76 ) = 7.43, p < .001, which was reflected at the univariate level as a main effect for
the Breadth Processing factor, F(1, 77) = 14.40, p < .001. Here the authors discovered that the adjusted mean score was greater for BiK-map students than for the word- list students (4.51 vs. 3.49, respectively; d = .847).
MANCOVA analysis on the two PI-BIV measures revealed a main effect for training approaching significance, F(2, 76 ) = 3.08, p < .051. At the univariate level, this effect was apparent in the Surface Processing factor, F(1, 77) = 5.20,
p < .025. Here the authors found word-list trainees indicated greater intentions than BiK map trainees to engage in this mode of processing (5.63 vs. 5.08, respectively; d = .495).
MANCOVA analysis on the PI-BIT measures revealed no significant differences. However, given the exploratory nature of the study, a univariate finding for training is reported with the Theme (Breadth) Processing factor, F(3, 75) = 4.33,
p < .040. Here the authors found that BiK map trainees indicated greater intent than word-list trainees (5.57 vs. 5.13, respectively; d = .453).
Discussion
Bahr and Dansereau state that the general results of the study are comparable with others obtained by previous foreign language acquisition researchers. This means that large standard deviations and relatively low recall scores and correlation coefficients ( in this study Cronbach’s alpha is ranging from .613 to .969) characterize it. In this respect the authors concluded that their experimental data provided support for the argument that BIK map-based learning does have significant advantage over word-list learning, in particular within short terms. However, Bahr and Dansereau also acknowledged that students’ performance in the present study was significantly lower (ranging from 10.8% to 28.8% in the BiK group and 5.8% to 20.2% in the list group) than those of students from earlier studies by the same authors in 2001.
The authors state that the difference in the students’ performance in the present study is likely due to the fact that delayed recall in previous experiments was preceded by immediate recall, which apparently caused a rehearsal effect. Although their objective in the current study was to eliminate the possibility of differential rehearsal effects, it seems that, without rehearsal, a consequent suppression of memory in general is unavoidable when testing for BiK-map effects.
The authors also discussed the possibilities of taking BiK map out of the academic realm in order test the durability of findings in realistic settings and expressed hope That future investigation into foreign language learning connectivity and multilingual memory will lead to the development of more sophisticated learning materials.
Critique
Bahr and Dansereau’s research paper, although relatively well written, is presented in a nontraditional format that can be hard to follow as both the result and discussion sections are found at the beginning of the paper. The article could have been improved by providing additional information about the location of the study and by limiting references to the authors themselves as their work has been replicated by others on numerous occasions. Other areas of weakness include the very low Cronbach’s alpha values in the processing inventory section on page 107-108 and the very low number of participants (well below the usual 300+ that is recommend for factor analysis). In spite of these critiques and in light of the experimental nature of this investigation I conclude that the Bahr and Dansereau article is both clear written and its aim is well directed.
Theoretical and practical implications
One of several theoretical implications of this study is that it highlighted the need for additional investigation to better understand the connections between of BiK maps and the foreign and the native language lexica. Although there is previous research (see page 102) that seems to support the hypothesis that a strong semantic or conceptual association exists between foreign language words and their meaning, future research should not only confirm these hypothesis’ but should test new presentation formats that would facilitate these connections in novice learners.
Practical implications of this study include using both BiK and monolingual knowledge maps in all kinds of academic settings in order to promote a shift toward a more beneficial top-down processing strategy among the learners. The use of both bi and monolingual knowledge maps in various settings also raises the possibilities that the textbook publishers would include BiK supplements in their new editions of foreign language textbooks and that BiK map creation as a subject would be added to teachers of foreign language degree course offerings.
Monday, April 6, 2009
Özmen et al. (2009)
Özmen, H, Gökhan, D., & Coll, R. K. (2009). A comparative study of the effects of a concept mapping enhanced laboratory experience on Turkish high school students’ understanding of acid-base chemistry. Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 7, 1-24.
Problem/Purpose
The researchers in this study examined how the combined effect of laboratory activities and concept mapping improved student learning of acid-base chemistry relative to traditional lecture and problem set teaching methods in chemistry classes. Student learning included test measures through quantitative scales with multiple choice problems as well as student interviews to identify qualitative differences, especially alternative conceptions. The expression “alternative conceptions” refers to student conceptions that fail to align with accepted scientific models and conceptions. In addition to examining student learning, the researchers set out to measure student affect in the form of attitude toward chemistry.
This study is of interest because it expands the understanding of concept maps and laboratory activities in science teaching by examining the effects of using the two methods concurrently. By investigating more qualitative measures like alternative conceptions, the study promotes the identification and correction of incomplete or incorrect student understandings. Özmen et al. further relate that alternative conceptions are pervasive, stable, and resistant to change.
Methods
Özmen et al. conducted a quasi-experiment using one teacher, two groups, and two teaching methods. The teacher taught a unit on acids and bases in the traditional lecture-based format he had used in the past for one group. For the intervention group, he taught using concept maps and laboratory activities. The researchers provided two 45-minute training sessions on concept maps and laboratory activities for the teacher. Both groups received five 45-minute lessons per week for a total of four weeks.
For the traditional group, the teaching observed was primarily whole-group instruction consisting of teacher lectures explaining concepts with examples chosen from the textbook. The lectures were followed by teacher-driven explanations and seatwork with the teacher moving about the room, helping students to complete the seatwork.
For the intervention group, the pre-test administered to identify student alternative conceptions at the beginning of the study was used as part of the instructional design. Students were provided with instruction about alternative conceptions at the beginning of the unit. Later in the unit alternative conceptions were presented again and discussed at times when students would likely develop cognitive conflict and potentially be replace the alternative conceptions with accepted scientific conceptions.
Students in the intervention completed two laboratory activities per week (eight total). Within the intervention group, students were assigned to smaller study groups. The study groups were matched based on student pre-test performance.
Students in the intervention group also received instruction with respect to concept mapping and practice in constructing concept maps. These included partially constructed maps at the beginning, and unassisted maps later. Students prepared concept maps for seven different topics within the acid-base unit.
With both groups, the researchers used pretests and posttests. In addition to the pretest at the beginning of the unit, the researchers conducted 30-40 minute interviews with 15 students to evaluate student understanding and to identify students’ alternative conceptions. The 15 students were selected to represent a range of achievement levels based on past chemistry examination grades. The post-test used with both groups was different from the pre-test, which Özmen et al. describe as non-equivalent.
For the pretests and posttests, student understanding was measured using the Concept Achievement Test (CAT). The CAT contains 25 items, 15 of which are multiple choice and 10 of which are multiple choice with required explanations. Response choices included the scientific explanation, one common alternative conception, and three plausible distracters. Three chemistry educators validated the content of the CAT and reliability was assessed via item analysis using the Kuder-Richardson 20 statistic, which was found to be 0.81 and considered acceptable by the researchers.
Results
The researchers compared pretest scores for the two groups using an independent samples t-test (t=0.40, df=57, p=0.82), and found no statistically significant difference between the groups (p>0.05). For the posttest scores, Özmen et al. found that the intervention group had higher scores and that the difference was statistically significant (t=5.58, df=57, p<0.01). Özmen et al. did not report Cohen’s d, but the author of this review found it to be d=1.45, a rather large and noteworthy effect size.
The researchers also examined students’ alternative conceptions to determine if there were differences in stability and change of these conceptions with respect to the different instructional methods. Özmen et al. present these results in a table (Table III). For the seventeen alternative conceptions, there were larger changes for the intervention group than for the traditional group. Özmen et al. do not present any statistics to evaluate statistical significance or effect sizes for these differences.
Discussion
Özmen et al. state that their findings indicate that students in the intervention group who participated in laboratory and concept map construction activities performed better on the posttest and showed greater changes in correcting alternative conceptions with scientific explanations. Students in the traditional group improved in these ways as well, but the posttest difference between groups was statistically significant with a large effect size. Statistics and effect sizes were not calculated for the corrections of alternative conceptions.
Because Özmen et al. studied the combined effects of two treatments, it is not possible to determine if both treatments are required to accomplish the outcomes observed. The change may be due to one component, the other, or the combination of the two. As Özmen et al. state, “A simpler intervention may be equally effective.”
Some of the changes are likely due to testing of alternative conceptions in the laboratory. Özmen et al. describe having students test the conception that acids melt metals by having students treat metals with strong acids to observe the effects. The rejection of the conception from contradictory laboratory experience is expected, but this effect was not isolated and tested specifically. A similar experience was created for students in a demonstration to controvert the alternative conception that “the only way to test a sample whether it is an acid or a base is to see if it eats something away, for example metal, plastic, animal, and us.” Again, the rejection of the conception from contradictory laboratory experience is expected, but this effect was not isolated and tested specifically.
Özmen et al. state that the role of concept maps in the intervention was threefold. First the students used concept maps to defend their ideas from laboratory work. Second the students used concept maps to understand the results obtained in the laboratory. Third the concept maps allowed the teacher to identify alternative conceptions and gaps in understanding. Concept maps were used to augment understanding and processing of laboratory activities and data
Özmen et al. indicate that the literature is mixed with respect to the effect of laboratory activities alone in improving student scores on post-instruction tests and in correcting alternative conceptions. Likewise Özmen et al. indicate that the literature is mixed with respect to the effect of concept mapping alone in improving student scores on post-instruction tests and in correcting alternative conceptions. However, Özmen et al. state that a limited literature on the effect of using both strategies together is consistent with the findings of this paper. Özmen et al. additionally state the sentiment that while laboratory work may be the more critical element of the two parts of the intervention, that concept maps are crucial in helping students to integrate the laboratory work within their conceptual structure.
The limitations of this study include geographic and temporal specificity. Furthermore, the use of one teacher to teach both methods and groups does not guarantee against teacher effects. The use of two components only in combination and not in isolation does not allow for empirically based evaluations of the contributions of each component or for any synergistic effects of the components used together.
Critique
Özmen et al. use language that is understandable and jargon is avoided when possible and explained where necessary. The absence of effect size calculations for the posttest results is troubling, especially when the effect is large and worthy of inclusion. Likewise, the lack of statistical significance testing on the results of Table III for correction of students’ alternative conceptions fails to provide empirical data analysis to support the author’s contentions. Calculation and inclusion of significance tests and effect sizes for these corrections should not be difficult. Özmen et al. could also have included two treatments with only laboratory investigations included in one and concept mapping included in the other to determine component and synergy effects. This last critique can still be addressed through future studies.
Theoretical, Methodological, and Practical Implications
A major implication of this article is the potential to use laboratory activities and concept mapping together to modify alternative conceptions that tend to be stable and resistant to correction by traditional teaching methods. In addition to correcting these major misunderstandings, the significant improvement in posttest scores using the combination of concept mapping and laboratory activities in equal time is an important practical implication. This may be even more notable given that some instructional time normally devoted to content was replaced with instructional time for learning to construct and use concept maps, thereby reducing the time spent directly on content in the intervention group.
This study used a specially designed test to assess students’ use of alternative conceptions based on alternative conceptions detected at the outset of the study through student interviews. This method allowed the researchers to focus on student understanding. Future research based on this method could be improved by having more than one choice being an alternative conception and by analyzing the distracters and the alternative assessment using item response theory to ensure that the distracter and alternative conceptions are equally attractive responses.
Theoretical implications of this article involve possible synergistic effects between concept mapping and laboratory activities (and possibly other forms of experiential learning, group work, and project-based learning). As well, there is the potential for theoretical work to connect concept mapping and laboratory activities in new ways to visual and kinesthetic processing and phonological loops via the multi-sensory input of laboratory activities and the use of concept maps to connect the sensory input with phonological loops and learners’ internalized concept structures.
Problem/Purpose
The researchers in this study examined how the combined effect of laboratory activities and concept mapping improved student learning of acid-base chemistry relative to traditional lecture and problem set teaching methods in chemistry classes. Student learning included test measures through quantitative scales with multiple choice problems as well as student interviews to identify qualitative differences, especially alternative conceptions. The expression “alternative conceptions” refers to student conceptions that fail to align with accepted scientific models and conceptions. In addition to examining student learning, the researchers set out to measure student affect in the form of attitude toward chemistry.
This study is of interest because it expands the understanding of concept maps and laboratory activities in science teaching by examining the effects of using the two methods concurrently. By investigating more qualitative measures like alternative conceptions, the study promotes the identification and correction of incomplete or incorrect student understandings. Özmen et al. further relate that alternative conceptions are pervasive, stable, and resistant to change.
Methods
Özmen et al. conducted a quasi-experiment using one teacher, two groups, and two teaching methods. The teacher taught a unit on acids and bases in the traditional lecture-based format he had used in the past for one group. For the intervention group, he taught using concept maps and laboratory activities. The researchers provided two 45-minute training sessions on concept maps and laboratory activities for the teacher. Both groups received five 45-minute lessons per week for a total of four weeks.
For the traditional group, the teaching observed was primarily whole-group instruction consisting of teacher lectures explaining concepts with examples chosen from the textbook. The lectures were followed by teacher-driven explanations and seatwork with the teacher moving about the room, helping students to complete the seatwork.
For the intervention group, the pre-test administered to identify student alternative conceptions at the beginning of the study was used as part of the instructional design. Students were provided with instruction about alternative conceptions at the beginning of the unit. Later in the unit alternative conceptions were presented again and discussed at times when students would likely develop cognitive conflict and potentially be replace the alternative conceptions with accepted scientific conceptions.
Students in the intervention completed two laboratory activities per week (eight total). Within the intervention group, students were assigned to smaller study groups. The study groups were matched based on student pre-test performance.
Students in the intervention group also received instruction with respect to concept mapping and practice in constructing concept maps. These included partially constructed maps at the beginning, and unassisted maps later. Students prepared concept maps for seven different topics within the acid-base unit.
With both groups, the researchers used pretests and posttests. In addition to the pretest at the beginning of the unit, the researchers conducted 30-40 minute interviews with 15 students to evaluate student understanding and to identify students’ alternative conceptions. The 15 students were selected to represent a range of achievement levels based on past chemistry examination grades. The post-test used with both groups was different from the pre-test, which Özmen et al. describe as non-equivalent.
For the pretests and posttests, student understanding was measured using the Concept Achievement Test (CAT). The CAT contains 25 items, 15 of which are multiple choice and 10 of which are multiple choice with required explanations. Response choices included the scientific explanation, one common alternative conception, and three plausible distracters. Three chemistry educators validated the content of the CAT and reliability was assessed via item analysis using the Kuder-Richardson 20 statistic, which was found to be 0.81 and considered acceptable by the researchers.
Results
The researchers compared pretest scores for the two groups using an independent samples t-test (t=0.40, df=57, p=0.82), and found no statistically significant difference between the groups (p>0.05). For the posttest scores, Özmen et al. found that the intervention group had higher scores and that the difference was statistically significant (t=5.58, df=57, p<0.01). Özmen et al. did not report Cohen’s d, but the author of this review found it to be d=1.45, a rather large and noteworthy effect size.
The researchers also examined students’ alternative conceptions to determine if there were differences in stability and change of these conceptions with respect to the different instructional methods. Özmen et al. present these results in a table (Table III). For the seventeen alternative conceptions, there were larger changes for the intervention group than for the traditional group. Özmen et al. do not present any statistics to evaluate statistical significance or effect sizes for these differences.
Discussion
Özmen et al. state that their findings indicate that students in the intervention group who participated in laboratory and concept map construction activities performed better on the posttest and showed greater changes in correcting alternative conceptions with scientific explanations. Students in the traditional group improved in these ways as well, but the posttest difference between groups was statistically significant with a large effect size. Statistics and effect sizes were not calculated for the corrections of alternative conceptions.
Because Özmen et al. studied the combined effects of two treatments, it is not possible to determine if both treatments are required to accomplish the outcomes observed. The change may be due to one component, the other, or the combination of the two. As Özmen et al. state, “A simpler intervention may be equally effective.”
Some of the changes are likely due to testing of alternative conceptions in the laboratory. Özmen et al. describe having students test the conception that acids melt metals by having students treat metals with strong acids to observe the effects. The rejection of the conception from contradictory laboratory experience is expected, but this effect was not isolated and tested specifically. A similar experience was created for students in a demonstration to controvert the alternative conception that “the only way to test a sample whether it is an acid or a base is to see if it eats something away, for example metal, plastic, animal, and us.” Again, the rejection of the conception from contradictory laboratory experience is expected, but this effect was not isolated and tested specifically.
Özmen et al. state that the role of concept maps in the intervention was threefold. First the students used concept maps to defend their ideas from laboratory work. Second the students used concept maps to understand the results obtained in the laboratory. Third the concept maps allowed the teacher to identify alternative conceptions and gaps in understanding. Concept maps were used to augment understanding and processing of laboratory activities and data
Özmen et al. indicate that the literature is mixed with respect to the effect of laboratory activities alone in improving student scores on post-instruction tests and in correcting alternative conceptions. Likewise Özmen et al. indicate that the literature is mixed with respect to the effect of concept mapping alone in improving student scores on post-instruction tests and in correcting alternative conceptions. However, Özmen et al. state that a limited literature on the effect of using both strategies together is consistent with the findings of this paper. Özmen et al. additionally state the sentiment that while laboratory work may be the more critical element of the two parts of the intervention, that concept maps are crucial in helping students to integrate the laboratory work within their conceptual structure.
The limitations of this study include geographic and temporal specificity. Furthermore, the use of one teacher to teach both methods and groups does not guarantee against teacher effects. The use of two components only in combination and not in isolation does not allow for empirically based evaluations of the contributions of each component or for any synergistic effects of the components used together.
Critique
Özmen et al. use language that is understandable and jargon is avoided when possible and explained where necessary. The absence of effect size calculations for the posttest results is troubling, especially when the effect is large and worthy of inclusion. Likewise, the lack of statistical significance testing on the results of Table III for correction of students’ alternative conceptions fails to provide empirical data analysis to support the author’s contentions. Calculation and inclusion of significance tests and effect sizes for these corrections should not be difficult. Özmen et al. could also have included two treatments with only laboratory investigations included in one and concept mapping included in the other to determine component and synergy effects. This last critique can still be addressed through future studies.
Theoretical, Methodological, and Practical Implications
A major implication of this article is the potential to use laboratory activities and concept mapping together to modify alternative conceptions that tend to be stable and resistant to correction by traditional teaching methods. In addition to correcting these major misunderstandings, the significant improvement in posttest scores using the combination of concept mapping and laboratory activities in equal time is an important practical implication. This may be even more notable given that some instructional time normally devoted to content was replaced with instructional time for learning to construct and use concept maps, thereby reducing the time spent directly on content in the intervention group.
This study used a specially designed test to assess students’ use of alternative conceptions based on alternative conceptions detected at the outset of the study through student interviews. This method allowed the researchers to focus on student understanding. Future research based on this method could be improved by having more than one choice being an alternative conception and by analyzing the distracters and the alternative assessment using item response theory to ensure that the distracter and alternative conceptions are equally attractive responses.
Theoretical implications of this article involve possible synergistic effects between concept mapping and laboratory activities (and possibly other forms of experiential learning, group work, and project-based learning). As well, there is the potential for theoretical work to connect concept mapping and laboratory activities in new ways to visual and kinesthetic processing and phonological loops via the multi-sensory input of laboratory activities and the use of concept maps to connect the sensory input with phonological loops and learners’ internalized concept structures.
Chiou (2008)
Chiou, C. (2008). The effect of concept mapping on students’ learning achievements and interests. Innovations in Education and Teaching International. (45)4, 375-387
Purpose/Problem
The purpose of this experimental study was to examine whether concept mapping could be used to improve accounting education in an advanced accounting course in a university setting in Taiwan. The researcher of the study examined two areas of interest: whether concept mapping improved students’ learning achievement in an advanced accounting course; and the attitudes of students toward concept mapping as a learning tool. Student learning achievement was measured by accounting achievement scores in pre- and post-test instruments as well an independent CPA-level exam measuring student knowledge of the domain area. Student attitude toward concept mapping was measured pre- and post-implementation of the concept mapping intervention by a satisfaction questionnaire developed by the researcher.
This study is noteworthy because the use of concept mapping as an instructional and summative tool is contrasted with traditional teaching methodologies in a domain that examines complex mathematical concepts. In addition, the study attempts to measure the effect of student attitudes toward concept mapping both before and after implementation of the concept mapping protocol. The researcher grounded his study by citing well-established research indicating the efficacy of concept mapping as an effective tool to improve student independent learning. Further, the researcher pinpoints a lack of research in the literature in this domain area which this study fills.
Methods
The participants in this study were 124 students from two classes in advanced accounting courses and one instructor in a university setting in Taiwan. Half the students were randomly assigned as an experimental group and the remaining 62 students were assigned as a control group. One instructor taught both classes. The instructor and textbooks for both groups were identical to avoid key confounding effects on the study. None of the participants reported using concept mapping in prior classes.
Several stages were used to accomplish the purpose of the study. First, the researcher and teacher spent two months prior to the teaching of the classes discussing overall experimental design and procedures. Second, grades from a prior intermediate accounting class were combined with an accounting achievement pre-test score and evaluated in order to ensure participants had similar backgrounds in accounting. Third, the experimental group was given three hours of training on concept mapping and its rationale. The instructor then taught from the text book using teacher-generated concept maps. Students from the experimental group were asked to generate their own maps after the conclusion of a chapter. The instructor and researcher provided corrective feedback on each student map enabling the students to correct their own efforts. The students in the experimental group were able to use the modified maps as a review tool for later study. This procedure was repeated until the end of chapter six of the textbook for a total implementation period of 12 weeks. The control group was taught in a more traditional manner with the instructor giving introductory lectures and teacher-generated abstracts. Students in the control group were asked to work on individual problems to which the instructor provided corrective feedback. The identical procedure was repeated until the end of chapter six in the textbook. The implementation period was the same as the experimental group. A post-test was administered to both groups after completion of the chapters to measure learning achievement. Student attitude surveys were administered to the experimental group to measure student satisfaction of concept maps as a learning tool.
Results
T-tests were conducted to compare two factors: 1) the experimental and control groups’ scores in intermediate accounting in the two semesters preceding the study; and 2) the scores in the pre-study accounting pre-test. The differences between the two groups were not significant (t = - 0.65, p > 0.05; t = 0.89, p > 0.05) implying that both groups had similar levels of accounting knowledge and ability.
A post-test t-test was conducted to examine whether the concept mapping technique contributed to student learning achievement. Results show a significant difference (t = 2.96, p < 0.001) between the two classes. The experimental group had a mean score of 73.24 (SD = 15.314) while the control group had a mean score of 63.31 (SD = 21.561) indicating the experimental group outperformed the control group by a significant margin. A Cohen’s d was not reported.
To insure that pre-test scores did not influence the experimental effect, a one-way analysis of covariance was applied with pre-test scores as covariates and the post-test scores as dependent variables. The results attained significance (F = 8.65, p < 0.01; F = 7.99, p < 0.01) indicating that the experimental group who utilized the concept map technique had significantly higher achievement than the control group who were taught using traditional teaching methods.
The researcher also examined student responses on a 10-question Likert-style satisfaction survey to determine student attitudes toward concept mapping. Agree and Strongly Agree responses were converted into “Agree” and Disagree and Strongly Disagree responses were converted to “Disagree” statements then converted to percentages. The first four questions on the survey were designed to reveal whether concept mapping improved learning. Ninety-seven percent of the participants agreed that concept mapping aided their learning of accounting principles. Ninety-five percent of the participants agreed that concept mapping helped them to learn and think independently. Eighty-nine percent of the participants expressed the opinion that concept mapping helped them to reduce barriers to learning accounting.
The next six questions were designed to test student acceptance of concept mapping as a learning tool. Ninety-five percent of the participants indicated that concept mapping could be used as an effective teaching and learning method and easily applied to other curriculum areas. Eighty-four percent of the participants reported liking the concept mapping technique in their study of accounting. Overall, ninety percent of the participants were satisfied with using concept mapping to learn accounting. However, only fifty-eight percent of the students indicated that they “could soon adapt to concept mapping.” The researcher notes that this result indicates that probably more time is needed to train students effectively in the technique of concept mapping.
Discussion
The main purpose of this study was to examine whether concept mapping could be used to help advanced accounting students in a university setting improve learning achievement. The results of the study showed that students in the experimental group improved in their learning achievement more than the students in the control group. Chiou notes that his findings are in agreement with a number of other studies’ findings in other disciplines.
Chiou also notes that the second research area – positive student perceptions of concept mapping – also reinforced previous research. The researcher does note, however, that “nearly half the students indicated that they could not quickly adapt to the approach of concept mapping” (p. 383). While this result is reported in a number of other studies, the results from this study adds to the growing consensus that a lack of familiarity with the technique of concept mapping can be a barrier to students individually adopting concept mapping as a personal learning tool.
Chiou extends his findings to promote concept mapping as “the only approach to address both what students know and how students organize their knowledge” (p. 383) and thus “is a useful meta-learning strategy in relation to helping students ‘learn how to learn’ (p. 384). He concludes with the statement that “concept mapping is an effective meta-cognitive strategy and this study is a pioneering detailed investigation in the usefulness of concept mapping in university-level business accounting courses” (p. 385).
Critique
In general, this study employs sound methodological and statistical techniques and represents a well-thought out and controlled study. The writing is clear, appropriately formal, direct, concise, well organized, and factual. The study is well grounded in previous research and makes an important contribution to the literature. Sample size is sufficient (N = 124) to yield generalizable results. Ethical considerations seem to be at least partially addressed with student anonymity being assured in the student attitude response post-study. Confounding effects are somewhat anticipated and addressed by ensuring homogeneity of the participants’ backgrounds and abilities strengthening the validity of the experimental results. No mention is made of the students’ cultural background as a possible barrier to the generalizability of the study results.
The study could have been strengthened by a more detailed description and analysis of the Likert-style questionnaire given post-study to the experimental group. As described, Chiou grouped all affirmative responses and all negative responses into two categories and converted to percentages. The strength of these responses could have been recalibrated given a more detailed Likert response questionnaire.
Theoretical, Methodological, and Practical Implications
This study indicates that concept mapping can be an effective meta-cognitive strategy to enhance meaningful learning in accounting and other related business courses. Given the dearth of studies in this area, this study makes an important contribution to the corpus of literature. In domains that stress the incremental acquisition of knowledge (in particular math and science), concept mapping might be an effective instructional and summative tool by allowing corrective feedback during the course of instruction.
In addition, this study seems to indicate that concept mapping encourages more independent learning skills by allowing these accounting students to make their own connections between different concept areas. This change in emphasis from more traditional teaching methods seems to enhance more meaningful learning in complex domains.
Finally, concept mapping could be an effective meta-cognitive strategy in making better transitional connections between courses in a particular domain.
Purpose/Problem
The purpose of this experimental study was to examine whether concept mapping could be used to improve accounting education in an advanced accounting course in a university setting in Taiwan. The researcher of the study examined two areas of interest: whether concept mapping improved students’ learning achievement in an advanced accounting course; and the attitudes of students toward concept mapping as a learning tool. Student learning achievement was measured by accounting achievement scores in pre- and post-test instruments as well an independent CPA-level exam measuring student knowledge of the domain area. Student attitude toward concept mapping was measured pre- and post-implementation of the concept mapping intervention by a satisfaction questionnaire developed by the researcher.
This study is noteworthy because the use of concept mapping as an instructional and summative tool is contrasted with traditional teaching methodologies in a domain that examines complex mathematical concepts. In addition, the study attempts to measure the effect of student attitudes toward concept mapping both before and after implementation of the concept mapping protocol. The researcher grounded his study by citing well-established research indicating the efficacy of concept mapping as an effective tool to improve student independent learning. Further, the researcher pinpoints a lack of research in the literature in this domain area which this study fills.
Methods
The participants in this study were 124 students from two classes in advanced accounting courses and one instructor in a university setting in Taiwan. Half the students were randomly assigned as an experimental group and the remaining 62 students were assigned as a control group. One instructor taught both classes. The instructor and textbooks for both groups were identical to avoid key confounding effects on the study. None of the participants reported using concept mapping in prior classes.
Several stages were used to accomplish the purpose of the study. First, the researcher and teacher spent two months prior to the teaching of the classes discussing overall experimental design and procedures. Second, grades from a prior intermediate accounting class were combined with an accounting achievement pre-test score and evaluated in order to ensure participants had similar backgrounds in accounting. Third, the experimental group was given three hours of training on concept mapping and its rationale. The instructor then taught from the text book using teacher-generated concept maps. Students from the experimental group were asked to generate their own maps after the conclusion of a chapter. The instructor and researcher provided corrective feedback on each student map enabling the students to correct their own efforts. The students in the experimental group were able to use the modified maps as a review tool for later study. This procedure was repeated until the end of chapter six of the textbook for a total implementation period of 12 weeks. The control group was taught in a more traditional manner with the instructor giving introductory lectures and teacher-generated abstracts. Students in the control group were asked to work on individual problems to which the instructor provided corrective feedback. The identical procedure was repeated until the end of chapter six in the textbook. The implementation period was the same as the experimental group. A post-test was administered to both groups after completion of the chapters to measure learning achievement. Student attitude surveys were administered to the experimental group to measure student satisfaction of concept maps as a learning tool.
Results
T-tests were conducted to compare two factors: 1) the experimental and control groups’ scores in intermediate accounting in the two semesters preceding the study; and 2) the scores in the pre-study accounting pre-test. The differences between the two groups were not significant (t = - 0.65, p > 0.05; t = 0.89, p > 0.05) implying that both groups had similar levels of accounting knowledge and ability.
A post-test t-test was conducted to examine whether the concept mapping technique contributed to student learning achievement. Results show a significant difference (t = 2.96, p < 0.001) between the two classes. The experimental group had a mean score of 73.24 (SD = 15.314) while the control group had a mean score of 63.31 (SD = 21.561) indicating the experimental group outperformed the control group by a significant margin. A Cohen’s d was not reported.
To insure that pre-test scores did not influence the experimental effect, a one-way analysis of covariance was applied with pre-test scores as covariates and the post-test scores as dependent variables. The results attained significance (F = 8.65, p < 0.01; F = 7.99, p < 0.01) indicating that the experimental group who utilized the concept map technique had significantly higher achievement than the control group who were taught using traditional teaching methods.
The researcher also examined student responses on a 10-question Likert-style satisfaction survey to determine student attitudes toward concept mapping. Agree and Strongly Agree responses were converted into “Agree” and Disagree and Strongly Disagree responses were converted to “Disagree” statements then converted to percentages. The first four questions on the survey were designed to reveal whether concept mapping improved learning. Ninety-seven percent of the participants agreed that concept mapping aided their learning of accounting principles. Ninety-five percent of the participants agreed that concept mapping helped them to learn and think independently. Eighty-nine percent of the participants expressed the opinion that concept mapping helped them to reduce barriers to learning accounting.
The next six questions were designed to test student acceptance of concept mapping as a learning tool. Ninety-five percent of the participants indicated that concept mapping could be used as an effective teaching and learning method and easily applied to other curriculum areas. Eighty-four percent of the participants reported liking the concept mapping technique in their study of accounting. Overall, ninety percent of the participants were satisfied with using concept mapping to learn accounting. However, only fifty-eight percent of the students indicated that they “could soon adapt to concept mapping.” The researcher notes that this result indicates that probably more time is needed to train students effectively in the technique of concept mapping.
Discussion
The main purpose of this study was to examine whether concept mapping could be used to help advanced accounting students in a university setting improve learning achievement. The results of the study showed that students in the experimental group improved in their learning achievement more than the students in the control group. Chiou notes that his findings are in agreement with a number of other studies’ findings in other disciplines.
Chiou also notes that the second research area – positive student perceptions of concept mapping – also reinforced previous research. The researcher does note, however, that “nearly half the students indicated that they could not quickly adapt to the approach of concept mapping” (p. 383). While this result is reported in a number of other studies, the results from this study adds to the growing consensus that a lack of familiarity with the technique of concept mapping can be a barrier to students individually adopting concept mapping as a personal learning tool.
Chiou extends his findings to promote concept mapping as “the only approach to address both what students know and how students organize their knowledge” (p. 383) and thus “is a useful meta-learning strategy in relation to helping students ‘learn how to learn’ (p. 384). He concludes with the statement that “concept mapping is an effective meta-cognitive strategy and this study is a pioneering detailed investigation in the usefulness of concept mapping in university-level business accounting courses” (p. 385).
Critique
In general, this study employs sound methodological and statistical techniques and represents a well-thought out and controlled study. The writing is clear, appropriately formal, direct, concise, well organized, and factual. The study is well grounded in previous research and makes an important contribution to the literature. Sample size is sufficient (N = 124) to yield generalizable results. Ethical considerations seem to be at least partially addressed with student anonymity being assured in the student attitude response post-study. Confounding effects are somewhat anticipated and addressed by ensuring homogeneity of the participants’ backgrounds and abilities strengthening the validity of the experimental results. No mention is made of the students’ cultural background as a possible barrier to the generalizability of the study results.
The study could have been strengthened by a more detailed description and analysis of the Likert-style questionnaire given post-study to the experimental group. As described, Chiou grouped all affirmative responses and all negative responses into two categories and converted to percentages. The strength of these responses could have been recalibrated given a more detailed Likert response questionnaire.
Theoretical, Methodological, and Practical Implications
This study indicates that concept mapping can be an effective meta-cognitive strategy to enhance meaningful learning in accounting and other related business courses. Given the dearth of studies in this area, this study makes an important contribution to the corpus of literature. In domains that stress the incremental acquisition of knowledge (in particular math and science), concept mapping might be an effective instructional and summative tool by allowing corrective feedback during the course of instruction.
In addition, this study seems to indicate that concept mapping encourages more independent learning skills by allowing these accounting students to make their own connections between different concept areas. This change in emphasis from more traditional teaching methods seems to enhance more meaningful learning in complex domains.
Finally, concept mapping could be an effective meta-cognitive strategy in making better transitional connections between courses in a particular domain.
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